The Worries of Charles VII of France: August 1453 to January 1455

The court of Charles VII was still reveling in the victory of the Battle of Castillon and the subsequent siege of Bordeaux when news of Henry VI’s death reached Paris.  As the French King and his advisors thought about how the turn of events in England would affect their enemy’s foreign policy, there was a bit of a mystery as no one knew exactly who would succeed Henry.  The fact that neither did the English wasn’t comforting to Charles as he learned that both York and Somerset were claiming the English Crown, he saw it both as an opportunity to fully push English forces out of France and a potential problem if York were to prove victorious in the certain civil war.  Soldiers were sent to join the French forces besieging Bordeaux as well as instructions to report the news of Henry’s death and the succession crisis unfolding in England then he wanted to know if it was possible to capture Calais from the garrison there.  Finally Charles thought about how his son the Dauphin, Louis, would react to the news considering their estrangement and what would Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, do now that England was on the verge of civil war.

The months past until 19 October when finally Bordeaux surrendered to French forces thus ending the 300-year English hold on Guyenne in southwestern France, the English soldiers were allowed to return to England on order by Charles.  The King would later learn that this decision had given York the numerical advantage that would prove decisive in the coming “Winter War” that would see York transformed into Richard III.  But at the time, Charles hoped the influx of defeated soldiers would escalate the chaos that seemed to be consuming England with two rivals claiming the crown.  Charles hoped to use this chaos to take Calais, however the French forces found that the garrison wasn’t about to surrender thanks to the efforts of Lionel de Welles, 6^th Baron Welles, the deputy captain of the garrison charge of Calais.  When the Burgundians looked like they were about to interfere before the end of 1453, the French had no choice but to retreat and Charles wondered if the Burgundians activity was the result of Louis convincing Philip to intervene.

Early in 1454, news reached Paris that London had opened its gates to York who had been proclaimed Richard III.  To Charles the apparent ascension of York to the throne meant that English foreign policy would shift dramatically back to the “war party” that had been marginalized the latter half of Henry VI’s reign in favor the Somerset-led “peace party” that the French used to their advantage the last few decades.  As the French court continued to follow what was happening in England, Charles tried to find out what Louis was doing in regard to the situation as well as Philip and his son Charles in Burgundy.  But Charles also had to consider rumors about the Count of Armagnac and his sister, though only rumors it was disturbing on the surface and the King didn’t like the implications if they were true.

The news reached Charles on the result of Bosworth it did not surprise him and decided on a wait-and-see approach when it came to Richard’s actions in regards to the conquered territory of Guyenne.  In the months that followed, Charles tried to persuade his nephew Peter II, Duke of Brittany, to ally with him against the English if the need were to arise and also sent overtures to Philip in Burgundy.  Neither would give the King a clear answer resulting in Charles decided to make sure that he had enough forces to repel an invasion.  Throughout the summer of 1454, Charles tried not to think too much of the English and with no immediate threat seemingly on the horizon he decided to let down his guard.  Then when he heard that the Earls of Devon and Warwick had left Calais headed for Paris with a far too small entourage befitting their status made the King and his own councilors wonder why the two men were coming.

In their audience Devon and Warwick told of Richard’s wish to present Margaret of Anjou as a possible wife to Henry IV of Castile and hoped that Charles would not have any objections.  The King along with his advisors were surprised, but kept it from the Englishmen.  Although many of his advisors wondered what Richard was up to, Charles knew exactly what was going on.  The King reminded them that he still had two nephews in England after Henry VI’s death only to get bewildered looks in response; Charles explained that his sister Catherine had married one Owen Tudor and had given birth to Edmund and Jasper Tudor, the earls of Richmond and Pembroke respectfully.  Then he reminded them of the widow of John, Duke of Bedford, who married a minor English nobleman before stating that Richard was simply attempting to avoid another scandal by marrying his wife’s niece to a brother King in Henry IV.  To Charles it simply showed that Richard was not planning on launching a military campaign to reconquer Guyenne in the near future and decided it would be prudent to develop a good relationship with the new King of England.  The next day Charles told the two envoys that he approved of Richard’s plan to present Margaret to Henry IV for marriage, the French king told his English guests that his wife would be pleased that her brother’s daughter would once again be a Queen.  Charles appointed a trusted man to accompany Devon to Castile to help with the negotiations and suggested the men return to Calais to sail to Castile immediate so as the Dauphin wouldn’t interfere in their mission.

After the three men left Paris for Calais, Charles relaxed in his vigilance against a soon return of English soldiers.  Throughout the rest of 1454, Charles started to reinforce French rule in Guyenne and also thought about the legacy of his first great military captain, Joan of Arc.  Condemned and burned as a heretic, Joan’s tainted reputation also tainted Charles’ reign and as the aging King looked into the future and the possibility that his own soul would be in danger with such an association he did not want to leave anything to chance.  Then after Epiphany 1455, Charles learned that the Portuguese embassy led by the Marquis of Valenca that had escorted the Infanta Joan to England had arrived in Calais and was heading to Paris.  Charles put down the letter Margaret had sent him a few days previously and ordered preparations to be readied for the embassy’s arrival.

Scotland: August 1453 to December 1454

The news of Henry VI’s sudden death arrived in Edinburgh not more than a week after it occurred; the news that two men were claiming the English throne came a few days after that.  James II, who at the age of 22 had already ruled Scotland for 16 years, could see the potential that the quickly developing succession crisis had for Scottish interests along the border with England.  However, James also had to contend with the fact that he himself was dealing with an intense family feud between the so called “black line” of Clan Douglas and the royal house of Stewart.  The feud had been escalating in intensity since the 1440s during the minority of James and evolved into an intermittent civil war in 1452 when James personally stabbed William Douglas, the 8^th Earl of Douglas, in Stirling Castle.  But as of last August 1453, only clans allied to the Black Douglas, as they were called, or loyal to the Stewarts had clashed with James Douglas, the 9^th Earl of Douglas, and his brothers not openly challenging James nor he openly challenging his enemies.

Throughout the fall of 1453, James and the Scottish nobles looked on as the English nobility divided between York and Beaufort or stayed neutral.  Then in early November reports came to Edinburgh that Fauconberg had left Roxburgh Castle with at least half the castle’s garrison headed for Berwick.  Instantly the King thought of taking one of the last English possessions on Scottish soil and started to gather troops from those loyal to him.  As it turned out so where the Black Douglas and for a while James though he might face open combat with his rivals until George Douglas, the 4^th Earl of Angus, of the “red-line” of Clan Douglas acted as an intermediary between his cousins the King and the Black Douglas along with their allies to temporarily set aside their issues for the good of the kingdom.

This temporary accord came just after news of the Battle of Durham drifted up from the English border along with reports that Fauconberg had taken half of the garrison of Berwick on his way to the battle.  On the heel of this news came the survivors from the Percy force including Henry Percy, the eldest son and heir of the 2^nd Earl of Northumberland, plus his brothers seeking a haven now that the North had all but fallen to the Nevilles in support of York.  The Percys were hereditary foes of the Douglases, however James allowed them to stay in Scotland but sequestered them away from the border for the time being.  In the meantime, James and the Douglases started to organize a force for the vulnerable English possessions giving the command to the Angus as he was at that time a neutral party in the bitter family feud.

In late January 1454, after following the flow of events in England, a small Scottish army led by Angus quickly took the lightly defended Berwick.  Angus left a garrison to defend the newly conquered city and lead the army to besiege Roxburgh Castle.  However, Fauconberg before he had left provisioned the strategic stronghold so well that the light garrison that he had left would be able to withstand a siege for a long time.  It did not take Angus long to realize that even before he had campaigned that Fauconberg had practicably gotten the best of him.  As news came of Richard’s victory at Bosworth, Angus knew that a now unified England would send a relief force soon and started to double his effects in taking Roxburgh.  However, the fragile coalition between forces loyal to James and those to the Black Douglas was breaking apart and with it the cohesion of the Scottish army.  When news arrived that Fauconberg was leading a relief force into northern England, Angus attempted to pressure the Roxburgh garrison even more, however Black Douglas’ allies refused and marched to meet the English.  Fauconberg crushed the splinter force before maneuvering between Roxburgh and Berwick making Angus choose between facing the oncoming English with a garrison behind him without support from Berwick or retreat leaving Berwick to a siege itself.  When Fauconberg arrived at Roxburgh in late April, Angus had long since left.

After reinforcing the Roxburgh garrison, Fauconberg went to besiege Berwick.  James along with many of the nobles and clans were angry of the betrayal of the Black Douglas’ allies at Roxburgh forcing Angus to retreat.  In fact during the siege of Berwick, the Stewart loyalists and the Black Douglas’ allies were at each other’s throats on the verge of fighting a civil war inside while enemy troops waited outside.  Then as Fauconberg got reinforcements, the Black Douglas’ allies let the English into the city but in doing so the Stewart loyalists forced their way through their countrymen to a ship that had arrived at the town and sailed away.  The ship arrived in Edinburgh a few days later and the Stewart loyalists talked about what happened at Berwick.  Although some of the Black Douglas’ allies tried to refute the accusations, the events around Roxburgh had already set the stage for more nobles and clans once allied to the Black Douglas started to turn to James.  It didn’t hurt the King that he was also using patronage, titles, and offices to pick off other Black Douglas allies as well.

As Richard settled into his reign in England, James had to considering the English exiles in his country.  Besides the Percy brothers and other nobles that had fled after Durham, James had allowed Oxford and Edmund Beaufort to stay in Scotland upon their arrival after fleeing from Bosworth.  The news of attainders, fines, and death warrants from England worried the exiles however James thought they could be of use against the Black Douglas.  He allowed the Percys to travel freely within the country though they and the other English exiles preferred to stay around Edinburgh with Edmund Beaufort acting as head of a court-in-exile.  The welcoming and harboring of the English exiles did nothing to improve relations with the new King of England; however James knew his rival Douglas would not find a friend in Richard due to the Douglases being hereditary foes with Nevilles just like they were with the Percys.

As 1454 ended in Scotland, James II found his nemesis, Douglas, losing support throughout the country from nobles and clans.  Even though the Scots lost the opportunity to gain permanent control of Roxburgh Castle and Berwick, the failures were blamed on Douglas’ allies while his decision to oppose the English and foment a potential Beaufort resurgence was highly thought of.  The only thing that concerned James was that Richard and France were cooperating on a potential marriage between Henry IV of Castile and Margaret of Anjou along with some disturbing reports from Ireland that he hoped would not force Richard’s hand.

Christmas 1454

The return of the court to London on 6 December was greeted with cheers from the populous especially as Prince Edward and Lady Joan rode together in the procession before it broke apart to several locations within the city.  The majority of the procession accompanied Richard III to Westminster Palace as preparations for Christmastide had to be taken care of as well as several decisions when it came to governing the kingdom.  Bishop Kempe along with some retainers was the first to separate from the procession, proceeding to his residence and return to the business of governing his diocese.  Worcester was the next to leave the procession, riding to the Tower of London to take up his position as Constable, a message from Richard having arrived a few days before notifying the officer in charge of the appointment of Worcester.  The rest of the procession not going with the King was headed for Baynard’s Castle as Prince Edward escorted Queen Cicely and Joan there along with the many ladies-in-waiting accompanying them.  Upon their arrival at Baynard’s Castle, the Princes George and Richard greeted their mother and were introduced to Joan.  After ensuring everything was in order, Edward and his knight escort rode for Westminster Palace.

The weeks leading up to Christmas were not without events occurring; one of the most important things on Richard’s mind was the restoration of Ludlow Castle, which had been sacked the previous year.  Although some repairs had been done since his coronation, Richard knew Ludlow still needed a lot of work especially if he wanted to serve the purpose he planned for it.  Ludlow had been the seat of the Earls of March, the most powerful lords in Wales before it became a part of Richard’s inheritance including his right to the crown.  Now it would be the seat of the Prince of Wales and as the residence of the heir apparent like Westminster Palace had become, but for that to happen Richard need to ensure it looked the part.  Already money had been set aside from lands confiscated that spring and Richard was getting the work organized as he wanted Ludlow finished by the time Edward and Joan were officially married when they were could officially begin their duties as future King and Consort.

As Richard set about restoring Ludlow, he also set about to fully secure the support of Buckingham by literally buying him off.  The Buckingham was the senior descendant of Thomas of Woodstock, the fifth son of Edward III, through Thomas’ daughter Anne of Gloucester.  Buckingham was also the senior heir of the Bohun inheritance through Thomas’ wife Eleanor de Bohn the eldest daughter of the last Earl of Hereford.  However when the last Earl of Hereford died without a son, his estate was divided between his daughters, the aforementioned Eleanor and her younger sister Mary.  Mary de Bohun had married John of Gaunt and was the mother of Henry of Bolingbroke later Henry IV, thus incorporating Mary’s portion of the Bohun inheritance into the lands of the House of Lancaster that later passed into Richard’s hands as part of the Crown while the title of the Earl of Hereford fell into abeyance.  It was with this portion of the Bohun inheritance and the Earldom of Hereford that Richard meant to give Buckingham with the consent of Parliament.  Buckingham was surprised when he received Richard’s writ of issue and heard the bill presented on the King’s behalf in Parliament.  The resulting outcome would be what Richard hoped, Buckingham would be truly loyal.

Beyond the material and political events Richard was concentrating on was entertaining the Portuguese party lead by the Marquis of Valenca.  The King did not have to worry about many of the Portuguese knights as various English knights or prominent families set about to entertain them as well as potentially wed a daughter to one of them.  This allowed Richard along with Salisbury, Buckingham, and others time to talk with the Marquis.  Afonso, the eldest son of the Duke of Braganza who was the natural son of King John of Portugal, informed them of the political goings on throughout various Iberian kingdoms as well their relations with France in particular.  The Marquis was forthcoming that Afonso V had instructed him to visit the French court before returning to Portugal as the potential marriage between Henry IV of Castile to Margaret could result in an alliance against either Aragon, Navarre, or both as they were under a personal union under the worst circumstances that Portugal might have to involve itself in.  Richard appreciated Afonso’s candor and the Marquis also understood Richard’s wish to prevent another scandalous marriage in regards to Margaret.  The issue of Margaret was a worry for Richard as the former Queen had sent her reply to the preliminary agreement she had been sent, the King did not know anything about either in detail as Devon and Warwick in Valladolid only gave summaries as the French led the negotiations with the Castilians.

Early in January 1455 after celebrating Epiphany, the Marquis and the Portuguese knight took their leave of Richard.  The King insisted that they take the short trip to Calais to ensure the quickest and safest across the Channel, which the Marquis graciously accepted.  After a visit to Joan and the Portuguese ladies-in-waiting, the Marquis and his party were escorted to Dover by the Buckingham and Essex where they boarded a ship and shortly arrived in Calais.  Richard then started planning for his first progress through the Midlands where the Beaufort cause had been the strongest and where most of his soldiers had come from.  The plan was to travel north through Middlesex, Hertfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, and Rutland before stopping for a long stay at Fotheringhay Castle in northern Northamptonshire.  Fotheringhay was one of Richard’s favorite residences and it had survived the succession crisis unscathed, both Richard and Cicely had not been to the castle in years and both wanted to return for a long extended stay.  The return journey to London would go south through Northamptonshire, Bedfordshire, and Buckinghamshire.

The reign of Richard III seemed to be going well as a major succession crisis had been soundly defeated and a diplomatically important marriage had been made for his heir, the future looked bright however to the west there was a storm about to rise on the horizon.

Good, Bad, and Unknown Arrivals

It was late-October when Richard III rode to Windsor Castle along with several of his Council to talk with Margaret of Anjou, the King had waited until Devon and Warwick reported from the Castilian court to know Henry IV’s response.  To Richard’s relief the King of Castile had responded favorably and negotiations had begun the next day with Henry’s representatives ensuring that Margaret’s monetary dowry would remain in her possession throughout the marriage as well as providing a number of estates she would be entitled to upon the Castilian monarch’s death.  Warwick also informed Richard that he had not given the amount Margaret was to receive to Henry’s representatives, a fact Richard was very satisfied to learn before he headed to see his former political rival.  Upon their arrival at Windsor, Richard and the Council members partook in a meal with Queen Margaret, Sir John Grey of Groby and his wife, Elizabeth.  Afterwards Richard informed Margaret that Henry IV of Castile had expressed interest in her to be his new Queen and had entered negotiations with his representatives and those of her uncle, Charles VII of France.  The King also told Margaret the amount she would receive in compensation of her lands in England if she agreed to the marriage contract being negotiated and added that Henry’s representatives had already stipulated that her “dowry” would remain in her possession throughout the marriage.  Margaret took the announcement well and acted graciously, though Richard sensed she was not pleased as he and the Council left for London.  Upon his return a letter from Portugal had arrived telling Richard that Worcester and Bishop Kempe would escort Infanta Joan and a Portuguese party to England within a fortnight.

In early November, Richard and the Council got a trickle of news from Ireland that James Butler, the attained Earl of Ormond & Wiltshire, was in western Ireland talking to clan chieftains and stirring up trouble outside The Pale.  Richard ordered William Bonville, 1^st Baron Bonville, and Sir William Oldhall to meet with Thomas FitzGerald, 7^th Earl of Kildare, and James FitzGerald, 6^th Earl of Desmond, to determine what was going on.  It might have been around this time that Salisbury and Buckingham fully learned about what Richard planned for Ireland, however the timing would be determined by what Bonville and Oldhall were to find about Ormond’s activities.  Even as Ireland was creeping into his thoughts Richard’s first priority was the arrival of his future daughter-in-law, whose official welcome was being planned by Queen Cicely.  It was assumed that the ship carrying Infanta Joan was to land somewhere on the southern coast, though it would depend on the weather in the Channel as to where, though it did not matter as Cicely had already planned for Joan to be welcomed by mayors and city councils from Plymouth to Dover as well as informing them as to where Joan was to be escorted to where she was to for her formal welcoming by Richard and herself to England.  Before Joan’s arrival, Devon and Warwick sent a report from Valladolid including a preliminary agreement for Margaret to examine that the King sent to Windsor without looking at it.

On 23 November 1454, the ship carrying Infanta Joan, Kempe, and Worcester along with several Portuguese ladies-in-waiting and knights led by her cousin Afonso of Braganza, Marquis of Valenca, arrived in Southampton.  The mayor and the city council when informed of her arrival sent a courier to London then went to greet her to the city and escorted her to Southampton Castle to rest a few days.  The mayor and councilmen informed the Infanta of Queen Cicely’s instructions that when Joan was ready that she along with her party would be escorted by several knights to Winchester where she would be formally welcomed to court by the King, Queen, and her future husband the Prince of Wales.  Upon receiving word of Joan’s arrival in Southampton, preparations began immediately with Richard sending an advance party to Winchester Castle to prepare for it to host Court as well as house the royal party.  On 27 November, the Infanta took her leave of Southampton to great cheers from the citizens and journeyed to Winchester arriving late in the afternoon to a welcome party of the mayor, councilmen, and William Waynflete, Bishop of Winchester.  Wayneflete led the assembly to his residence at Wolvesey Castle where he was honored to host a banquet for Joan and hosted her stay until her formal welcome at nearby Winchester Castle.  After the public affairs were ended Bishop Waynflete meet privately with the Infanta along with Bishop Kempe, Worcester, and the Marquis of Valenca to show her a letter from Queen Cicely that revealed that a ceremony would take place a day or two after her formal introduction in which Prince Edward and Joan would be technically wed, but due to the youth of the Prince of Wales and Joan’s recent arrival they would not have a formal marriage ceremony until Edward was ready to take up his duties as Prince of Wales.  Waynflete further stated that during this time a household for Joan would be established as part of the Queen’s and that tutors had been arranged so that Joan could learn the language and customs of England to better prepare her for her role as Queen.  The same day that Joan left Southampton, the Court left London headed for Winchester by way of Guildford.  It was late in the day on 29 November when the royal party arrived at Winchester Castle and took up residence.

The next day, 30 November, Bishop Waynflete joined Bishop Kempe and the Earl of Worcester in escorting Joan and the Portuguese party to Winchester Castle.  In the Great Hall, Richard welcomed the returning Bishop Kempe and the Earl of Worcester back to court thanking them for their near nine-month service to the Crown in their successful mission.  Bishop Kempe and Worcester thanked Richard for his welcome and expressed their gratitude for entrusting them with such an important matter.  They then introduced the Marquis of Valenca sent by his cousin, Afonso V of Portugal, to head the Portuguese party accompanying Joan to England whom Richard gladly received.  The Marquis of Valenca, who was followed into the Great Hall by Joan and the party of Portuguese knights and ladies, communicated to Richard the personal greetings of Afonso V to the King, the Queen, and his future brother Prince Edward at this most joyous occasion and by his authority presented the Infanta Joan to the Court.  Richard warmly welcomed Joan to England as well as Cicely who greeted the Infanta as a daughter, the King then called for the Prince of Wales to come forward.  Edward presented himself to Joan, personally welcoming her to England and pledging to treat her with honor as a Prince and husband should to a lady of such noble birth.  Joan pledged to be a worthy wife and consort so as not to bring shame upon Edward.  The Infanta then thanked the King for his wisdom in giving the matter of her marriage to the Prince of Wales into the hands of Bishop Kempe and the Earl of Worcester and on behalf of her brother and herself beg the forgiveness of keeping them so long away from presence of the King as any and all delays in negotiation and their departure were not of their doing.  Edward thanked Bishop Kempe and Worcester by asking Richard if he could be allowed to reward them for their service to Joan and himself.  Richard approved his son’s gift and added a sum to the Bishop Kempe and made Worcester the Constable of the Tower of London.  Joan then thanked Cicely for her warm welcome and hoped she would be a worthy daughter to the Queen as well as to live up to her example as consort.  Cicely thanked Joan and expressed that Joan was free to bring those ladies-in-waiting she had brought on her journey into her household so as to ease her transition into her new home to which the Infanta thanked her.  Richard then asked Edward and Joan to join him and the Queen on the dias, after which he welcomed the Portuguese ladies-in-waiting and knights to Court before inviting them to join a banquet in honor of Joan.  The Marquis of Valenca accepted the invitation and Richard dismissed Court to the banquet hall.  The next day, 1 December, Bishop Kempe assisted by Bishop Waynflete presided over a small ceremony witnessed by Richard, Cicely, the Marquis of Valenca, a Portuguese noblewoman, and Worcester in which Edward and Joan were wed.  After the ceremony, Joan was styled as the Lady Joan, Prince of Portugal, until her more formal wedding to Edward upon his full installation as Prince of Wales.  A few days later, the entire Court along with the Portuguese party started back for London.

Dynastic Diplomacy

On 21 August 1454, Richard III and Queen Cicely joined Queen Margaret and the Earls of Richmond and Pembroke in Westminster for a mass in honor of Richard’s predecessor, Henry VI.  After the solemn occasion, Margaret officially ended her sanctuary in Westminster Abbey and was given rooms at Windsor Castle by Richard.  A few days afterwards, the 23-year old Pembroke petitioned Richard for permission to marry Lady Anne Wydeville, the 15-year old daughter of Baron Rivers, Richard Wydeville.  Although the marriage would not take place for a few years, Pembroke had heard of Richard’s concern with Margaret’s future considering the examples of Pembroke’s own mother Catherine Valois, the Queen of Henry V, and Anne’s mother Jacquetta of Luxembourg, formerly Duchess of Bedford and now Baroness Rivers, and did not want to surprise the King with news of this marriage agreement.  Richard knew that Pembroke had been having contact with the Wydeville family as Baron Rivers’ eldest daughter Elizabeth Grey had been one of Margaret’s ladies-in-waiting and had been one of the former Queen’s on-and-off companions in sanctuary and now along with her husband, Sir John Grey of Groby, was serving Margaret at Windsor Castle.  All involved had taken no sides during the previous winter and Richard permitted the marriage.  But with Margaret out of sanctuary, Richard decided it was time to prevent another scandalous marriage before he would have to deal with the consequences.

Early in September, Essex and the committee of the Commons and Lords presented their plan for the repayment of debts via the usage of forfeited lands.  Richard endorsed the plan and Parliament in both the Commons and Lords, passed it without a hint of disagreement.  Richard then brought his council together and inquired about what to do about Margaret.  Buckingham suggested that since Henry IV of Castile was looking to marry that they should attempt to present Margaret as a suitable candidate.  Salisbury, while supporting the idea, cautioned that since Margaret was niece to Charles VII of France that it might require that he be consulted.  Richard was loath to work with the man who had just conquered all the English possessions in France save Calais, but accepted that it was a price to pay at the moment.  The King delegated Devon and Warwick, who had taken up his position in Calais, to go to Paris and meet with Charles about presenting Margaret as a candidate for the hand of Henry.  If successful, Devon was to proceed to Castile and present Margaret as a candidate for marriage.  Within the week, Devon had left for Calais.  Soon after he left, Richard finally received a letter from Pope Nicholas V; the Pope apologized for the delay in his response as his concern for Christendom after the fall of Constantinople to the Turks had preoccupied him tremendously.  Nicholas thanked Richard for the concern to Cardinal Kempe’s bodily remains and eternal soul even though Kempe erred inserting himself in a political situation against Richard.  The Pope affirmed Thomas Bourchier as Archbishop of Canterbury and named him Cardinal as befitting his position.  Richard welcomed the news and sent his congratulations to Cardinal Bourchier as well as letter to the Pope thanking him for his response and also his concern about the fall of Constantinople.

Near the end of the month, news from Portugal arrived that negotiations for the marriage of the Prince of Wales to Afonso V’s sister, the Infanta Joan, had been successfully concluded.  Once the preparations for Joan’s journey were finalized she and the delegation would depart Lisbon, but not before Worchester would as instructed be proxy for the Price of Wales in a ceremony before the Portuguese court.  Parliament and the country as a whole welcomed the news of the royal marriage; however the 12-year old Prince of Wales was apprehensive when Richard told him the news though the King knew it was just because of his son’s age.  Richard told the Prince of Wales that it would be several years until he and Joan would be truly married, until then he should treat the Infanta like an honorable Prince should.  Queen Cicely began preparations to have the Infanta join her household beside her younger daughters as well as selecting acceptable ladies-in-waiting and a tutor to help the future Queen of England learn the language of her new country.  A few days later, Warwick sent a message that stated Charles VII sent his warm regards to Richard and supported Richard’s care for his niece by presenting her to Henry IV as a candidate for marriage.  Warwick also wrote that Devon had returned with him to Calais along with a French diplomat before heading to Castile on account that Charles felt the Dauphin might attempt to prevent them from their mission.  Richard replied that Warwick was to join Devon and the French delegation to the Castilian court in Valladolid as well as explaining that he had promised Margaret a large dowry and provided the amount.  For the King, everything seemed to be progressing well as he started to wade into the realm of international diplomacy.  However, Richard needed to find a way to tell Margaret that he was presenting her as a candidate for marriage.

Seeds are Sown

With the coronation finished, London returned back to normal even though Parliament was still in recess until the middle of May 1454.  With a significant amount of the members of Parliament departing back to their homes after the coronation to check on their estates before Parliament started again, the King and the majority of the Council remained in London to work on the affairs of state.  While working on state matters, Richard III was active in looking after the vast estates that he had brought to the Crown as well as those he now controlled via his ascension including the immensely rich Duchy of Lancaster.  As he continued to gain control of the bureaucracy, Richard III found himself dividing his time between state and estate matters that would continue throughout the rest of the summer and fall as he tried to develop a system of management that would work for him.  However, even as the King worked on current situations he was actively thinking about the future of the country in terms of his dynasty.  And with that in mind, Richard III started working on the composition of various regional councils and the creation, or elevating, of peers.

As Parliament came back into session, news came from Baron Fauconberg’s successfully relieving Roxburgh from the Scots and that he was actively besieging a Scottish garrison in Berwick.  The King ordered a few hundred troops from London up to Berwick to join Fauconberg’s forces to help in his campaign and requested in Parliament that the government’s debt to Fauconberg be given high priority as well as granting him an income to for the upkeep and defense of Roxburgh.  Parliament quickly approved the King’s request and the members working with Lord High Treasurer Viscount Bourchier took note.  Even as Fauconberg was putting the Scots in place, there were rumors from Ireland that the Earl of Ormond, though attainted and with a price on his head, was actively traveling around the island and meeting with chieftains that had not submitted to the Crown.  Richard III had already said that he had plans for Ireland, but he told Salisbury and Buckingham that he would be moving up his plans for Ireland if the rumor about Ormond was true.

As June 1454 arrived so did news from the Berwick in which Fauconberg had taken the town with the reinforcement the King had sent him and was holding several Scots as hostage for ransom.  Word arrived from Portugal in the form of two letters, one personally from King Afonso V and one from the English emissaries.  Afonso’s letter was formal in sending his condolences upon the death of Henry VI, congratulated Richard for his victory against Edmund Beaufort to show, and welcomed interest in the hand of his youngest sister.  However, the letter from his emissaries, Bishop Kempe and the Earl of Worchester, revealed that Afonso was very relieved when they inquired about a marriage because at the time there had been inquires by Henry IV of Castile who had divorced his first wife because he had not consummated his marriage.  Kempe and Worchester relayed that negotiations were preceding and went over some of the generous terms Afonso was willing to give at the beginning.  The King and Council quickly composed responses to the letters, the first was giving Kempe and Worchester instructions about upon limits as well as the King giving Worchester the authority to act as a surrogate groom for the Prince of Wales upon a successful completion of marriage negotiations and the second in response was a friendly and diplomatic reply to Alfonso’s letter.  By the end of the month the letters were on their way to Portugal.

With the marriage for his heir looking well on the way to a successful completion, Richard III made his second son, the 11-year old Edmund, the Duke of Bedford.  Also the King created his brother-in-law Henry Bourchier, Viscount Bourchier, as the Earl of Essex with the title of Viscount Bourchier being used as a courtesy title for Henry’s eldest son, William.  The King then arranged with Salisbury and Warwick the marriage of his youngest son, the nearly 2-year old Richard Plantagenet, to Warwick’s nearly 3-year old daughter Isabel Neville.  None of the three men expected more than the establishment of a cadet branch of the royal family and rewarding Neville support, none would have dreamed the impact this marriage would have on the future.  Queen Cicely had originally hoped that young Richard would have gone into the church, however with her husband’s ascension to the throne that was out of the question.  But Cicely was determined that her two youngest sons’ education and training would be the best possible for the benefit of the realm and in support of their eldest brother, Edward, when he succeeded his father.  Since the King had been overseeing his two eldest sons’ education for years and would continue to do so, especially that of the Prince of Wales.

As August approached, Richard III requested that the Earl of Richmond send his ward, 11-year old Lady Margaret Beaufort, to Queen Cicely at court.  Although it was unclear what the King’s plans for Lady Margaret were, the formal order styled her Countess of Somerset as was her right before Henry VI awarded her uncle Edmund the Earldom and later Dukedom of Somerset.  Some suspected that Richard was planning on marrying Margaret to the young Duke of Bedford while others thought that the King wanted the young woman secured until he had a grandson via the Prince of Wales.  However, Richard then named both the Earl of Richmond and his younger brother, the Earl of Pembroke, to the Council of Wales along with William Herbert to help administrate and provide justice in the Principality while the Prince of Wales was still a minor then to help advise him once he was old enough to take on more responsibility of governance.

With the first year of his reign ending, Richard finished the summer of 1454 in high spirits especially as Parliament was about to pass various Acts that would help bring law and order to the realm after the corruption brought about by Edmund Beaufort under the reign of Henry VI.  However, the King did not know that his actions had sown seeds that would harvest both good and evil for himself and his family.

The Coronation of Richard III

By noon on 1 May 1454, the city of London was bursting with excitement as the procession to Westminster Abbey began.  The King began from the Tower of London, after spending the night before within its walls as per tradition, and was joined by the Queen, the Prince of Wales, and the rest of his family along the route to the Abbey.  Upon arrival at Westminster, Richard III remained on his mount while everyone else dismounted and entered the Abbey showing great dignity and poise to the commons, though inside he thought about the meaning of the rituals he was about to partake.  Once everyone had entered the church, the King dismounted and proceeded to the entrance of the Abbey where he was met by the Lord Bishops of Durham and of Bath.  The King was then accompanied on either side by the two Bishops to the Chair of Estate, upon being seated the ceremony began.  Although Thomas Bourchier had not yet been confirmed by the Pope as the Archbishop of Canterbury, Richard had insisted he preside over the ritual’s ceremonies.  He along with the highest ranking Great Officers of State precede to the east, south, west, and north of the Abbey and called for the Recognition of Richard as King to which the people acclaimed on each side wholeheartedly.  Bourchier then administered an oath to the King and afterwards the Bishop of Winchester presented Richard with a Bible then the Eucharist was celebrated, only to stop after the Nicene Creed.

Richard III’s outer robes were then removed leaving him in his white anointing robe and he proceeded to King Edward’s Chair that was positioned atop a dais with a canopy raised over it.  The Dean of Westminster poured concentrated oil into a spoon that Bourchier anointed the King with on his hands, head, and heart before blessing the King.  Richard was then enrobed again though with two different robes not the one he had previously worn, and was presented with spurs by Baron Cobham in his role as the Lord Great Chamberlain.  Bourchier, assisted by other bishops, presented the King with the Sword of State and Richard was enrobed again with two new garments on top of what he had already been enrobed with.  The Archbishop then delivered several of the Crown Jewels to the King, starting with the Orb which Richard received then returned so it could be placed on the Altar. Next, the King received a ring to signify the marriage between he and the nation, followed by the Sceptre with the Dove and the Sceptre with the Cross.  As he held the two sceptres, the Archbishop placed King Edward’s Crown on his head.  “God Save the King” was cried by all in attendance.

Richard III was then borne to the Throne and watched as his wife of almost 21 years entered the ritual.  Cicely was crowned Queen Consort in a simple ceremony then seated next to Richard III before the continuation of the ceremony.  The Archbishops and Bishops in order of precedence came before the throne and swore their fealty to the King.  Next in order of rank came the peers of the realm to pay homage, each set of peers led by their Premier member.  The clergy, led by the Archbishop of Canterbury, followed next in paying homage.  Finally, the last to pay homage was the King’s own family members, each doing so individually first with Prince Edward and ending with Prince George.  Two of Richard III’s did not pay him homage, his eldest child Lady Anne Duchess of Exeter due to her marriage and his youngest Prince Richard who was barely 18-months old.  Once Prince George was finished, the Eucharist was continued from where it had been interrupted and completed.  Afterwards, the King proceeded to St. Edward’s Chapel within the Abbey preceded by the Bearers of the Sword of State, the Sword of Spiritual Justice, the Sword of Temporal Justice, and the Sword of Mercy.  The Sceptres and the Crown were laid upon the Altar before Richard was stripped of his two outer robes and enrobed in a purple one before placing the Crown back upon his head.  Richard then took up the Sceptre of the Cross and the Orb in each hand before leaving the chapel.  Richard III, accompanied on either side of him by the Bishops of Durham and of Bath, proceeded out of the Abbey followed by his family along with the prelates and peers of the realm.

The King was escorted to Westminster Palace by several guards as the crowds cheered, once in his own chambers he changed his attire from solemn to formal and festive.  Richard III went to Westminster Hall where his family, the peers of the realm, prelates of the church, and all members of Parliament were present awaiting his arrival.  As he entered the hallway, the crowd bowed and shouted “God Save the King” as he walked to the High Table where his family and the majority of his Council with their wives were awaiting him.  He took his place at the center of the table then sat down beginning the banquet celebrating his coronation.  The amount of food that was brought out that the guests ate was astonishing, but hardly had the meal begun when the door to the Hall opened and in walked a herald proceeding three men in full armor on horseback.  The Garter King-at-Arms challenged the lead knight about their presence; the lead knight announced himself as Sir Philip Dymoke then commanded his herald to announce his purpose.  “If there be any person, of what estate or degree so ever he be, that will say or prove that King Richard the Third is not the rightful inheritor and King of this Realm, I, Sir Philip Dymoke, here his Champion, who say he lie, and is a false traitor, offer my glove to fight in his quarrel with any person to death!”  Sir Philip then threw down the gauntlet making a loud sound in the quiet Hall.

After a few moments, Sir Philip’s herald picked up the gauntlet then marched towards the High Table as the Garter King-at-Arms stood aside however they stopped in the center of the Hall.  The herald made his announcement once again with Sir Philip throwing down his gauntlet at the end, again no one answered and the herald retrieved the glove.  The party marched up to the High Table in front of the King, on either side of Sir Philip was the Duke of Buckingham and the Duke of Norfolk as the Lord High Constable and Earl Marshal respectively.  Once again the herald made his announcement with Sir Philip throwing down his gauntlet, when no one answered the King stood and drank to the Champion from a gold cup then handed it to Sir Philip.  Richard then requested the three men to disarm themselves and to sit at his table to take part in the banquet; the three men accepted the King’s invitation and dismounted.  The three men walked out of the Hall to remove their armor as their horses were led back towards the door as the celebration began again in earnest.  A short time later, the three men returned to the Hall and sat at the High Table.

The banquet continued throughout the afternoon until twilight when the celebration finally ended, the King and Queen with the rest of the royal family departed the Hall to their chambers in the Palace.  While Cicely made sure that their children were in bed, Richard took time to look at several documents of news and intelligence that had arrived during the previous night and during the day.  Then the King went to his bedchamber with the Queen, as he lay in bed Richard finally relaxed as he reviewed the events of the day before realizing that he was trembling.  Neither the news of Henry VI’s death, nor his victory at Bosworth, or Parliament acknowledging him as King had made him tremble, the thought that he has been anointed in the sight of God as King made him feel a crown weighing on his head.  It was different when one wore a crown.

Attainders, Fines, Reforms, and Debates

On 2 April 1454, Richard III introduced acts of attainder against Edmund Beaufort’s major supporters: the first was of the late Henry Percy, 2^nd Earl of Northumberland, and all his sons who participated in the Battle of Durham; the second against James Butler, 5^th Earl of Ormond and also Earl of Wiltshire who participated in the Battles of Bradfort and Swindon; and third against John de Vere, 12^th Earl of Oxford, who had participated in various battles around London and finally at Bosworth.  Parliament was quick to pass the acts and the King then declared those still living outlaws with bounties for their capture.  Next Richard III brought up a list of those knights and lesser nobility that had been taken captive after Bosworth and suggested punishments of either forfeiture of land and/or fines if they submitted to the King’s authority.  Starting with the nobles, each man was brought into the presence of the King in front of Parliament was given the choice to swear allegiance and live, no one refused the offer.  By the time Parliament adjourned for the day, the captive roll had been exhausted and large swaths of land had been added to the Crown.

Beginning on 3 April 1454, Richard III and Parliament turned their attention to reforming the government that had been corrupted by the advisors of the late Henry VI, most notably the now headless Edmund Beaufort.  The King reclaimed nearly all the lands and allowances granted by his predecessor to Beaufort’s old favorites, the few exceptions being those that had actively supported Richard III and were rewarded for loyalty towards their sovereign with extra land.  During the reign of Henry VI, Richard III had been owed vast amounts of money by the Crown for his services in France and Ireland, now he meant to not only repay himself but also others that had been owed sums because of the corruption of Beaufort.  The King also would not be neglectful to those that spent vast sums on his behalf in the recent conflict either and meant to see they were repaid their service.  Richard III requested that Parliament select from amongst their number of both the Lords and the Commons to join with the Lord High Treasure Viscount Bourchier to gather accounts from his loyal subjects as well assess the newly acquired and reacquired land so as to produce a plan of payment with the King receiving 50% of all revenue, 10% going to all debt to foreign lenders that the Crown owed, and the rest divided up to repay domestic debts with those with the smallest amounts owed being repaid first.  Both the Lords and Commons selected men amongst their number for the prestigious duty.

With the finances of the realm being worked on, the reform-minded King turned his attention to the corruption of numerous sheriffs and judges that had begun to create a sense of lawlessness within England.  Though some of the “corruption” was because magnates like Salisbury, Warwick, Norfolk, and even Richard III himself when he was Duke of York would influence the outcomes if they were involved, the King knew that something need to be done because the middle class was growing prosperous and influential through its mercantile interests abroad.  Richard III proposed that sheriffs be restricted to a term of service of five years with a period of the same time before being allowed to serve again and that judges be moved around the country every three to five years so as to prevent corruption.  While the proposal did have some support, many of those in Parliament wanted tougher enforcement of laws and enforcement of those laws to protect property rights especially amongst those below the nobility.  Another concern that was raised regarding law and order were the returned soldiers from France, who many times went into lawlessness or entered the service of a nobleman to intimidate, assault, or even murder their employer’s enemies.  The King had quickly employed those soldiers returning after the defeat of Castillon, promising to lead them to victory over those that had betrayed their efforts and even now patrolled London leading up to his coronation.  One proposal was that soldiers would be given land at low rent in the newly confiscated property for a period of some years and another was that they should be retained for the present in case of conflict with Scotland.

The debates in Parliament and in Richard III’s own Council continued throughout most of the month until 24 April when the opening session of the 1^st Parliament of the King’s reign was adjourned.  Preparations for the coronation had been going on throughout London even as Edmund Beaufort had been beheaded and Parliament debated, but with Westminster Hall needed for the coronation banquet it was time for the debate to be suspended so it could be converted.  With the date of the coronation growing nearer things were more frantic in London as the final preparations for robes, dresses, and clothing were completed.  Even though no common citizen of London would be in Westminster Abbey for the ceremony, that fact didn’t stop their excitement or preparations for their own celebration for the coronation of Richard III making the city even more chaotic.  Finally when night fell on the evening of 30 April, the buzz in London suddenly died and an eerie, yet excited silence fell over the city including in the Tower as the King found it hard to sleep even though he knew it was his God given right to wear the crown.

The King of Fools

On 1 April 1454, Richard III presided over the opening of Parliament with those assembled declaring their loyalty to the new monarch with the Commons spontaneously shouting “Long Live the King!” to the annoyance of some of the Lords.  The King formally declared Edward of Rouen his true son and heir then granting him the titles of Prince of Wales, Duke of Cornwall, and Earl of Chester. Parliament, with the Commons particularly enthusiastic, proclaimed their support and loyalty to Prince Edward.  The King then announced that his coronation take place 1 May before turning the session to more serious matters.  Richard III announced that Edmund Beaufort, the Duke of Somerset, had been brought from the Tower and summoned him to the presence of Parliament.  The King motioned to the Speaker who readout the accusations against Somerset that included treason against his lawful sovereign, attempted to cause rebellion amongst the King’s loyal commons, and attempting to usurp the throne for himself.  Parliament the trial commenced immediately with the introduction of the proclamations in which Somerset styled himself as Edmund I.  Somerset was allowed to make a speech in his defense; however his one chance to be remembered in history for a memorable last speech was by all accounts a disaster.  As excepted Parliament unanimously proclaimed Somerset guilty.  Richard III introduced an act of attainder depriving Somerset and his posterity of land and titles that was unanimously passed by Parliament.  The King pronounced a traitor’s death for Edmund Beaufort, no longer Somerset, to be carried out immediately and recessed Parliament for the day.

Since the time of his confinement in the Tower, Edmund Beaufort had been a dead man walking and from his cell watched the construction of the scaffold built especially for his execution on Tower Hill.  Edmund after being led away from the presence of the King and Parliament was forced to dress in a suit of motley then to walk to his place of execution through the streets of London to the jeers of the populace.  The King with all of Parliament following him in procession had preceded Beaufort to Tower Hill crowded behind the scaffold with only Richard III on his horse.  As Edmund was forced up the scaffold, the crowd was held back by numerous guards.  The order of execution was read aloud then on cue from the King, the head executioner produced a “crown”, a jester’s three-pointed hat, which was strapped to Edmund’s head.  The execution then proceeded as Edmund had a noose placed around his neck before being prodded up a stool before it was kicked out from under him resulting in his strangling to near death until the rope was cut.  Edmund was then hoisted onto a table, his cloths torn open before his stomach was cut open, and then groaned has his bowels were taken out before being burnt.  Instead of his heart being taken out as well, Edmund was taken off the table and thrown down onto the chopping block barely coherent as blood gushed from his open bowel, the executioner then swung his axe and separated head from body thus ending the life of Edmund Beaufort as the crowd cheered.  The executioner then grabbed the jester’s hat and held up the severed head to the cheering crowd then to Richard III who sat upon his stead without emotion.  He nodded and motioned to which spike he wanted the traitor’s head placed then spurred his horse back towards Westminster Palace followed by the members of Parliament as the body was being dismembered.  By nightfall, the still jester hat adorned head of Edmund Beaufort was overlooking the city from a spike on the Tower while his body parts were being sent to various locations throughout England.

Consolidating Power

On 16 February, Richard III sent Fauconberg to capture Oxford and Edmund Beaufort, who were last known to be in Stamford.  The King and the Nevilles disbanded the majority of their armies after paying them on top of the booty they had taken from the Beaufort encampment, however the King made it clear than any sacking or terrorizing of the population would result in the forfeiting of their liberty, if not their lives.  Richard III accompanied by Salisbury, Warwick, a chained and heavily guarded Duke of Somerset with a small army in tow headed for London.  The Royal procession took its time during which Richard III sent word to his wife in Gloucester to come to London with the rest of their family and sent word to his sons, Norfolk, and Bourchier in London to prepare for his return.  During the march south, Richard III was greeted in every town by throngs of commoners.  Meanwhile, Fauconberg had persuaded Oxford and young Edmund Beaufort to Norwich, but before he arrived the two had boarded a ship bond for Scotland. On 23 February, Richard III and the Nevilles were greeted by the Princes Edward and Edmund, Norfolk, Bourchier, and the Lord Mayor of London outside the capital before entering the city to thunderous cheers from the citizens.  The Duke of Somerset was escorted to the Tower while the rest of the procession made its way to Westminster Abbey to hold a celebratory mass.

On 1 March, Richard III called Parliament for the beginning of April and announced that his coronation would take place by the end of May.  The King also dismissed a large percentage of his remaining army that had accompanied him from Bosworth, but those not dismissed were to help keep the peace in London for the beginning of Parliament and for the coronation.  Richard III went about forming his own Great Council to help him rule the realm.  The King appointed Salisbury the Lord Chancellor, Norfolk was confirmed to his hereditary position of Earl Marshal, Warwick was appointed the Captain of Calais, Bourchier was named Lord High Treasurer, the Earl of Devon was named Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal, and Baron Cobham was given the position of Lord Great Chamberlain due to the face that it’s hereditary holder Oxford was to be attained.  Of the other Great Offices of the Realm, Richard III retained from Henry VI’s council the Duke of Buckingham as Lord High Constable as an olive branch to those that had remained neutral through the succession crisis, Buckingham being the most powerful, and kept his son-in-law the Earl of Exeter as Lord High Admiral so as not to create a scandal upon his eldest daughter. As of yet, Buckingham and Exeter had not arrived in London.

Of the many topics taken up by Richard III and the Council, the first concern of the King was the succession.  While the King had four sons, Richard III reminded the Council that Henry IV had come to the throne with four sons as well but they had produced only one grandson among them, the late Henry VI.  The several foreign merchants were inquired upon for the eligibility of foreign princesses; they soon arrived at a consensus upon Joan of Portugal whom the King himself believed would help his dynasty counterarguments from those that would still support the Beauforts and their like.  The King sent a delegation led by the Bishop of London and the Earl of Worchester to inquire of Afonso V about the hand of his sister.  Richard III and the council then took up the question of the Scottish capture of Berwick and the siege of Roxburgh Castle.  The King and the Council agreed that after the succession crisis that the realm needed to be stabilized before Richard again rode off to battle, in the meantime the King appointed Fauconberg, recently arrived in London after his unsuccessful pursuit of Oxford, as Lieutenant of the North and charged him to relieve Roxburgh and if practicable retake Berwick.

Several times after his arrival in London, Richard III had called upon Margaret of Anjou.  The Queen dowager was still in sanctuary at Westminster Abbey and refused to see the King, under the belief that he might have had a hand in her husband’s death and the stillbirth of her child.  Her Tudor brothers-in-law finally prevailed upon her to receive the King.  In the presence of Edmund Kyrton, the Abbot of Westminster, Richard III vowed to Margaret that she would be provided lands and income if she were to remain in England as if she was his sister or if she were to leave the country she would be provided a large dowry so that she could live comfortably as she saw fit.  By all indications Margaret was courteous to the King and the meeting between the two was without incident, though after the meeting Richard III ordered discrete inquires to be made of worthy candidates of marriage for Margaret on the Continent.

Meanwhile Cardinal Kempe, the Archbishop of Canterbury, having supported the Duke of Somerset wouldn’t reconcile himself with the new King.  The Archbishop had tried to reclaim his Cathedral only for the townspeople to chase him from it, he sent out numerous excommunications to any cleric that gave ‘the traitorous York’ the mass or attempted to crown him King.  Cardinal Kempe had also sent a letter to Rome to gain support for the House of Beaufort, filling it with vastly exaggerated or inaccurate accounts of the conduct of Richard III’s campaign.  Several nobles and clergymen attempted to persuade the Archbishop to be reconciled, but were rebuffed with the threat of excommunication.  On 22 March, Kempe suddenly fell from his horse and died while on the road to Dover.  When news of the Archbishop’s death reached him, Richard III appointed Thomas Bourchier, the Bishop of Ely, who had been one of the first to support him in the clergy and brother of Viscount Bourchier, the King’s brother-in-law, to act as Archbishop of Canterbury until confirmed by the Pope.  The King ordered the Bishop to collected Cardinal Kempe’s body and to ensure he was given a proper burial before taking up his new seat.  The King sent a letter to Pope Nicholas V detailing events since the death of Henry VI in September, including the nomination Thomas Bourchier as Archbishop.

During the last week of March 1454, magnates and nobles arrived in London for the beginning of the new Parliament and the coronation but for the King the most important arrivals were that of his wife, Cicely, and the rest of his children.  Richard III had prepared Baynard’s Castle for his family’s residence after the Earl of Richmond had relinquished it back to the Crown after the King’s return from Bosworth.  For the time being the King and his two eldest sons would continue to reside at Westminster.  The most important arrival after that of his family for the King was of Humphrey Stafford, the 1^st Duke of Buckingham, along with his son, another Humphrey, the Earl of Stafford, who was joined by clearly pregnant his wife, Margaret Beaufort daughter of the Duke of Somerset.  The Countess of Stafford’s condition made many joke that the younger Humphrey Stafford had made love and not war during the previous winter.  Richard III received Buckingham at Baynard’s Castle and invited him to take his place on the council as Lord High Constable, which the Duke accepted.  The King also received Henry Holland, the Duke Exeter, and his eldest daughter Anne of York at Baynard’s Castle. The King invited his son-in-law to reassume his position of Lord High Admiral on the Council so as not to embarrass his eldest daughter, but due to Exeter’s seemingly scandalous absence from the battlefield in support of his father-in-law he was relieved of his position as Constable of the Tower of London.

Bosworth

Early in the morning of 15 February preparations for the come battle began in both camps. The center of the Beaufort forces were under the personal command of the Duke of Somerset, the right flank was under commanded of Somerset’s heir Henry Beaufort, and the left flank was put under the command of Oxford. Across the field on the Yorkist army were divided in two, the Nevilles on the left and Richard III on the right. The Neville force was further divided with Warwick commanding the left flank that included all the men who had fought at Nottingham, Salisbury commanding the center, and Fauconberg commanding the right flank. The King’s force was also divided into three segments with Richard III commanding of the center with Cobham leading the left flank and Devon the right. Frost was still on the ground as the commanders assembled their ranks and peered across the fields outside Bosworth to the other side, save Warwick and the Neville left that seemed to be slow to take their position.

The Battle of Bosworth began when Oxford led the Beaufort left against the far right flank of the Yorkist host lead by Devon, but then Warwick and his men appeared behind the Beaufort army. In a risky maneuver, Warwick and his men had risen and assembled early before circling around their opponents’ right flank in a forced march that positioned them in-between center and right flank of the Beaufort army. The surprise rear assault caused mass confusion in the Beaufort army that Salisbury and Fauconberg quickly took advantage of as they attacked the isolated right flank of the Beaufort army. Richard III ordered Cobham to engage Somerset’s center before leading the center of his army to cut off the attacking left flank of the Beauforts. The confused and cut off Beaufort right flank quickly collapsed in the face of the Neville brothers’ assault and the fleeing troops escaped in the only direction they could find, right towards the center of Beaufort army. The Beaufort center had already engaged Cobham’s attack while fending off Warwick in the rear when their fleeing comrades raced into their ranks with Salisbury and Fauconberg’s men chasing after them. Somerset ordered a retreat and attempted to move whatever he could closer to Oxford’s forces, he found his way suddenly blocked by Richard III and his men not having yet engaged the attacking Oxford. The Beaufort army completely disintegrated as men ran for their lives or surrendered wholesale. Henry Beaufort had been killed when his men collapsed in face of the assault of Salisbury & Fauconberg while the Duke of Somerset was injured as he attempted to escape and was captured by Warwick himself. Oxford, having done the best he could, retreated towards Stamford.

By early in the afternoon the Battle of Bosworth was a complete Yorkist victory as the Beaufort forces were either dead, fled, or captured. Warwick presented the wounded Somerset, under heavy guard, to Richard III. The King ordered his rival to be put in chains and his wound given attention so that he could not escape justice for the crime of treason. Richard III then pardoned all the commoners that had fought for Somerset and commanded that the decree should be read in every church so that none should fear for his life then allowed those captured to return home, but with the warning that if they committed any crimes on their return home their lives would be forfeit for committing treason. As for the knights and nobles that had been taken captive, Richard III kept them prisoner so that they could be judged after his coronation. The King then allowed his army the right to take booty from the Beaufort camp. After the formalities of victory, Richard III retired to his tent with his commanders and ate a celebratory meal.

Rendezvous with Destiny

After the Battle of Nottingham, the Beaufort forces remained in the city as they stared down the Nevilles in Newark. There were minor clashes between small groups of soldiers from both forces over the next two weeks but a major confrontation couldn’t happen because of the weather. In and around London, Richard III and his supporters had been increasing their forces to combat Somerset while also securing their hold on government. Meanwhile King James II of Scotland had been watching the movements of the English factions and in late January sent a small army over the border to captured Berwick while laying siege to Roxburgh Castle. Then in early February, Richard III headed for Dunstable where an army of nearly 20,000 men had assembled leaving his sons the now proclaimed Princes Edward and Edmund in London, which was under the command of Norfolk and Richard’s brother-in-law Bourchier. Richard left the nobles with orders that if he were to die to immediately crown Edward as the new King with the two men as co-Regents. The Yorkist army then headed northward to engage the Beauforts. However in amassing such a large force, the news had reached Somerset in Nottingham giving him an advantage on where to choose to fight, if he moved quickly.

On 7 February, the nearly 10,000 strong army led by Somerset headed south to Stamford where it was joined by a force led by the Oxford swelling its number to nearly 13,500. On 9 February, the Richard III’s army arrived at Northampton to learn that Somerset was headed for Coventry by way of Leicester. On 12 February, the Neville army marched into northern Leicestershire and headed towards a rendezvous with Richard III in the western part of the county hoping to intercept Somerset. On the afternoon of 14 February, units of all three armies arrived around the small town of Bosworth during the rest of the day the small village swelled to a city with the arrival of a combined 49,000 armed men from both sides, with Richard III outnumbering Somerset roughly 5-to-2.

As night fell, Somerset decided that he would engage Richard’s larger army as early the next day as possible for the element of surprise and in the ensuing chaos either get the victory or give himself time to retreat to fight on more favorable terms against either one of the Yorkist armies. However, Oxford tried to persuade him to attack and defeat the Neville army then retreat before the larger army of Richard could engage them. The self-styled Edmund I decided against Oxford’s plan as it could have been seen as if he was frightened of Richard. Meanwhile in the Yorkist camp, the King held a council of war with his senior commanders and the consensus was for the Nevilles to attack Somerset’s right while the King attacked Somerset’s left. Warwick in particular was vocal in this and many believed he had something up his sleeve in response to the humiliating propaganda that the Beauforts had put out against him. After the council, Salisbury and Fauconberg told the King they would do their best to ensure Warwick wouldn’t do anything reckless.

Political and Martial Victories

On 21 December, the Yorkist army led by Norfolk and Devon arrived at Eton making Oxford very nervous as he remained at a stalemate with the forces of Cobham outside London. A week later in Canterbury, the Duke of York and Edward arrive with their 5,000 man force to cheers and shouts from the townspeople. York and March went to the cathedral and worshipped at the shrine of Thomas a Becket. When the news reached Cardinal Kempe in Barnet he excommunicated the priests that had given York and his son the mass, however the propaganda value that York received from this action was invaluable and increased the view of the commoners that he was the rightful King. The next day, York and March then headed from Canterbury towards London linking up with the forces of Cobham by nightfall. Upon hearing the news of York’s advance from Canterbury, Oxford retreated from south of London to Barnet where Somerset’s younger son, Edmund Beaufort, was staying with a small force.

On 30 December, Edmund, Norfolk, and Devon joined up with York, Edward, and Cobham outside London. The Yorkist army was welcomed into London, securing the Tower and the city. Late in the afternoon the Duke of York entered the City of London before heading for Westminster Hall where he sat upon the throne and was formally proclaimed Richard III by those present. The Yorkist control of London, Canterbury, and southern England combined with the York-supporting Nevilles domination of the North made the proclamation very near reality. However, when Somerset heard the news he attained all those that followed the ‘false king Richard,’ before continuing his march northwards on the road to Chester.

As 1454 began, Richard III took control of the government bureaucracy in London while sending his forces to the cities of Barnet, St. Alban’s, and Oxford to clear them of Beaufort loyalists. The Earl of Oxford and Edmund Beaufort escaped from Barnet with their forces to Norwich. In the north, the Nevilles had been gathering forces for Richard and with Somerset so close it was decided by Salisbury, Warwick, and Fauconberg to march south. The three men each took a third of their total force and started on different routes southward, hoping to lure Somerset towards a fight. By that time Somerset was leaving Chester and turned eastward and the city of York.

On 16 January, outside Nottingham the forces under Warwick confronted a part of the Beaufort army and fighting quickly ensued. Warwick’s smaller force held its own the entire day as his father and uncle raced to reinforce him, however the winter weather was hampering everyone. Unfortunately, the entire Beaufort army was closer and Warwick found his force at a numerical disadvantage even though they were controlling the field. The young Neville sent a small charge to push the Beaufort army back to allow the rest of his force to disengage from the field and head towards Newark where he linked up with his father and uncle. The Battle of Nottingham was a draw with Warwick gaining a tactical victory by preserving his force to fight another day while inflicting heavy losses to the enemy in both actual numbers and proportion of the total force killed, however it was a strategic victory for Somerset in forcing Warwick from the field and stopping the overall Neville advance. And according to the Beaufort propaganda it was a major defeat for Warwick, who was portrayed as a coward running from the battlefield. That humiliation would have major ramifications weeks later.

The Contenders Take the Field

The succession crisis had lasted for nearly four months without any resolution between York and Beaufort with the only battles occurring between their supporters. But on 10 December 1453 one of the contenders finally took the field, the Duke of York along with Edward, the Earl of March, and Edmund, Earl of Rutland, led a force from Tewkesbury of 12,500 strong supported by Norfolk and Bourchier. The Yorkist army headed south towards Bradford-on-Avon where Ormond was maneuvering his nearly 3,000 strong force opposite Devon’s comparable force in southern Gloucester. On 13 December, Devon joined with York in northern Wiltshire and the nearly 15,000 strong forced headed to Swindon.

On 14 December, the Earl of Ormond came upon a column of the Yorkist army outside of Swindon and attacked it believing it to be just Devon’s force only to found himself facing a host that vastly outnumber his own. The battle was over in 90 minutes and those among Ormond’s force not dead either fled back to their homes or were captured. The Battle of Swindon gave York a victory, but considering that he almost outnumbered the Beaufort supporters nearly 5-to-1, it wasn’t a major one. However, Yorkist propaganda went into effect and the news was spread that the styled Richard III defeated a supporter of the usurper Somerset but graciously forgave the commoners and sent them home. After the battle, York presented his son Edward to the contingent of Cornish soldiers that Devon had recruited. Edward was then proclaimed the Duke of Cornwall, a title usually assumed by the king’s eldest son, and put him in command of the soldiers, if only nominally.

After Swindon, Ormond escaped to Southampton where he boarded a ship that took him to his estates in Ireland. The Duke of York with his eldest son followed with about 5000 men after Ormond but arrived too late to capture him. The two then started along the coast securing the port cities for the Yorkist cause, but didn’t seem to be heading towards London, which seemed odd. But a near 10,000 man army nominally led by Edmund, but with the Norfolk and Devon in actual command, headed towards London. The split of the Yorkists seemed very strange, especially with York commanding the smaller force that wasn’t heading to London.

Meanwhile, the Duke of Somerset had set off from Barnet to St. Alban’s on 12 December then headed up towards Olney then Northampton with an army of around 10,000 men sporting badges and banners with a large red rose prominently displayed. Somerset’s strategy had been to lure York out of Tewkesbury; however when news reached him of the Battle of Swindon and then the split in the Yorkist army it made him pause in Northampton for several days. The Beaufort commanders were divided with some suggesting that they go after the force led by Norfolk and Devon while others thought they should gain control of the Midlands since York seemed to have northern and southern England virtually in his control, this plan would including capturing York’s lands in the west of England and in Wales. Somerset decided to embarrass York by raiding his land, even perhaps capturing his family, and proceeded towards Ludlow via Coventry. Upon his arrival at York’s seat at Ludlow, Somerset discovered that York’s wife, younger sons, and daughters weren’t there. It turned out that York had sent his family to the city of Gloucester where they could escape to safety if the advance of Beaufort forces made it necessary. After letting his army sack Ludlow, Somerset then headed northward towards Shrewsbury.

The Bloodshed Begins

On 14 November 1453, the first battle in the first of a series of conflicts that would be known as the Wars of the Roses within eyesight of the city of Durham. The Nevilles and Percies renewed their feud, but now in support of two different claimants for the throne of England. The two forces numbered around 3000 each and fought to a stalemate throughout the day, neither side able to get the upper hand. Then in the afternoon, Fauconberg with a force of around 500 arrived from the north behind the Percy positions. The sudden appearance of an enemy force to their rear sent the Percy troops into disarray. While trying to maneuver his forces to counter the rear attack, the Earl of Northumberland was struck down and not long afterwards his forces broke, fleeing the field and dispersing throughout the north. The Bishop of Durham then opened the city gates and welcomed his brothers Salisbury and Fauconberg while Warwick took some men and rushed south to Middleham to continue recruiting a force to secure the north for Yorkist cause. The news surrounding the events outside Durham quickly spread throughout England, soon there was new of other battles circulating around the country.

In late November, Baron Cobham raised a force from Kent and headed for London in the name of York only to meet a force led by the Earl of Oxford from Barnet resulting in a battled just south of London resulting in a standstill. A small force of London citizenry tried to help Cobham, but as they exited the city Oxford tried to storm the city through the opened gate. Oxford was pushed back and then had to retreat when Cobham attacked from behind, though did prevent the Kentish force from linking up with the residents of London, who retreated back behind their gates. In the southwest, the Earl of Devon had raised a force from Cornwall and Devonshire then led them across the county of Somerset and entered county Wiltshire. On 3 December 1453, the Earl of Ormond having gathered a force from Wiltshire in support of Somerset defeated Devon’s forces at Bradfort-on-Avon. However, bad weather the next day prevented Ormond from following up the victory and Devon retreated into southern Gloucestershire.

As Christmas Day drew closer, the succession crisis had turned into a civil war but neither claimant had personally taken the field in their own cause. The House of York had the victory at Durham while the House of Beaufort had the victory at Bradford-on-Avon to counter it. Both forces of York and Beaufort were at a stalemate outside London with men starting to raid areas around London to gain provisions. The reason both Somerset and York had yet to take the field was because they were actively trying to gain the support of the church and its blessing, however while some clergy choose sides others took the stance of the Bishop of London and supported neither. Soon both men decided it was time to take the field and after having personally gathering armies were about to take to the fields of England to win undisputed control of the throne.

The Crisis Deepens

With two men proclaiming themselves his successor, Henry VI’s mortal remains arrived in London on 1 September 1453 with his half-brothers and his grieving wife leading the precession. His body lay in state at Fulham Palace that night then the next day proceeded to Westminster Abbey for his funeral and burial. Thomas Kempe, Bishop of London, presided and all in attendance waited during the eulogy to whom Bishop Kempe declared to be Henry VI’s successor. The bishop was the nephew of John Kempe, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and staunch supporter of the court party. The Archbishop Kempe, a politician first and hardly a bishop, had answered Somerset’s summon to Barnet and openly supported his claim to the throne. The Bishop of London, however was smart enough to know the city of which he presided over and wanted to keep his life, thus he pronounced neither Somerset or York as King during the eulogy. Henry VI was interred next to his favorite saint, Edward the Confessor, and London remained at peace for the moment.

Throughout September and into October, the two claimants demanded the other submit to them and by the end of the month had attained the other. Some nobles and magnates started to align themselves with either the House of York or House of Beaufort, by person or proclaiming it in nearest cathedral. The court party quickly supported Somerset, the two most prominent were the Earls of Oxford, John de Vere, and Ormond & Wiltshire, James Butler, and with them most of the bureaucracy of the Kingdom was at Somerset’s quick disposal. After Norfolk’s public support, York was soon joined by the Earl of Devon and Baron Cobham who had joined him in his 1452 campaign for reform as well as his brother-in-law, Viscount Bourchier, at Tewkesbury. Then news that Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury, and his son the Earl of Warwick, also named Richard, had proclaimed their support of York quickly sent their rivals in the North, the Percy clan headed by the Earl of Northumberland, over to support Somerset.

While others were putting their support behind either claimant, in hopes of power and influence, some nobles and magnates couldn’t make up their minds. An interesting case was Henry Holland, the Duke of Exeter, who was a descendant of John of Gaunt and possible claimant to the throne but also married to York’s oldest daughter. Exeter was strangely silent and noncommittal to the annoyance of his wife. Henry VI’s half-brothers, Edmund and Jasper Tudor, stayed in London with their sister-in-law Margaret, who had gone into sanctuary in Westminster Abbey feeling her life threatened in London. But the biggest seemingly neutral magnate was Humphrey Stafford, the Duke of Buckingham. A descendant of Edward III, Buckingham liked neither claimant and remained in his castle however he had learned that his son, the Earl of Stafford was going to go to Barnet to support Somerset. But after the Nevilles had joined York, Buckingham believed Somerset needed a miracle and stopped his son by holding him as a virtual prisoner until an undisputed King was acknowledged.

As the succession crisis continued into November all of England, both noble and common alike, could feel that a war was coming as neither claimant was backing down. It was only a matter of time when fighting would begin, even if it was winter. Then William Neville, Baron Fauconberg, sent word to his brother and nephew that the Earl of Northumberland had gathered a force and was marching south from Alnwick towards the city of York. The Earls of Salisbury and Warwick were both in Middleham gathering soldiers for the Yorkist cause when they received Fauconberg’s message and quickly marched north to meet the Percies. The two forces raced toward the city of Durham, though the Percies arrived first it was only an hour before the Nevilles did so as well, however it was just before night fell on 13 November and the two forces camped outside the city which had been barred by Robert Neville, the bishop of Durham, brother and uncle to the commanders of the Neville forces. For all in and around Durham that night, it was a night of unease.

Historical Background to the Claims

The House of Beaufort’s claim to the throne is based on their direct male line descent from John of Gaunt, the 3rd son of Edward III; however the taint of illegitimacy haunted their cause. The Beaufort’s were descended from John Beaufort, son of John of Gaunt and his third wife Katherine Swynford, but John and his siblings had all been born before the couple were married. Richard II and an Act of Parliament formally legitimized the Beaufort children, however their half-brother Henry IV issued a proclamation that barred the Beauforts from the succession but without an Act of Parliament making its lawfulness questionable. Nevertheless, Edmund Beaufort saw it has his right to succeed Henry VI since like Henry IV before because he was the senior direct male descendant of Edward III and no one could argue the point.

The House of York’s claim to the throne was also based on descent from Edward III as well, but twice over. The Dukes of York were direct male descendants of Edward III through his 4th son, Edmund of Langley and first Duke of York, and unlike the Beaufort claim to direct lineage, the House of York did not have the taint of illegitimacy hanging over their family. But to Richard Plantagenet what gave him the right to the throne was that he was a descended from Edward III’s 2nd son, Lionel of Antwrep. Lionel only had one surviving child, Philippa of Clarence, the 5th Countess of Ulster, who married Edmund Mortimer, the 3rd Earl of March. During her lifetime, Philippa was the heir presumptive to her cousin Richard II and upon her death that right passed to her son Roger Mortimer, the 4th Earl of March. When Roger Mortimer died in July 1398, he left four children including two sons the oldest of which was his namesake the six-year old Roger who inherited his grandmother’s position of heir presumptive. When Richard II “resigned” the throne in 1399, the seven-year old Roger Mortimer’s right was pushed aside in favor of Henry of Bolingbroke who became Henry IV and began the House of Lancaster. The 5th Earl of March lived until 1425 but left no surviving issue and since his younger brother had died young, the Mortimer rights to the throne were passed to Richard Plantagenet, the son of his older sister Anne Mortimer. As the House of Plantagenet inherited the throne through Matilda, the daughter of Henry I of England, who’s right to rule had been usurped by King Stephen but was reestablished by her son the first Plantagenet King of England, Henry II.

Because of the events of 1399 and Richard II’s “resignation,” both the House of Beaufort and the House of York seemed to have clear claims to the Crown. The Beauforts held the agnatic claim while the Yorkists were the legitimist claim, while today the claim of the House of York would be paramount in law back in 1453 it was still an open question. And like many other legal arguments of so high importance back then, the issue would need to be decided not in Parliament or the court room but the battlefield.

Two Men Claim One Crown

Even while Henry’s body was still warm, the Duke of Somerset with the court party accompanying him left Clarendon racing towards London 75 miles away. Upon the King’s death, they had sent a messenger to the capital with the news of Henry’s death and that Somerset had been “acknowledged” by the late King on his death bed. Unbeknownst to Somerset and the other members of the court party, John Mowbray, the Duke of Norfolk, had himself sent a messenger to London as well but in his is message was to proclaim the Duke of York as the rightful King of England. The Duke of Norfolk with his retinue raced north from Clarendon to Ludlow.

On 24 August 1453, London erupted into chaos when the news of Henry VI's death was proclaimed and only grew when two men were proclaimed as the late King’s successor. The populace separated into rival camps supporting each claimant, however Somerset's supports found themselves vastly outnumbered and escaped the city towards Windsor. When Somerset arrived in Windsor, he made his first public pronouncement of his claim to the Crown as ‘Edmund the First, King of England’ and was given allegiance by this London supports and was informed of the proclamation of York as King as well as London’s reaction to the situation. Undaunted, Somerset continued to London and demanded the capital submit to him, however the Lord Mayor and the council barred him from the city. Frustrated Somerset went to Barnet on 27 August 1453 and called all loyal subjects to the House of Beaufort meet him there.

On 22 August 1453, York and Norfolk met one another in Tewkesbury. In front of the city officials, Norfolk publicly proclaimed and pledge allegiance to 'Richard the Third, King of England.' Messengers were then sent to all corners of the England as York called on all subjects to meet him there or to send their pledges of loyalty. Soon the news of Henry VI's death spread across the whole of England and quickly on its heels were as the summons by two men claiming to be the rightful King of England.

Meanwhile the body of Henry VI and the grieving Margaret of Anjou had been virtually abandoned at Clarendon. The late King's half-brothers, Edmund and Jasper Tudor led the funeral procession with the grieving Margaret a few days after the court party had raced for London. As the funeral procession carrying the late King’s body was slowly making its way towards London, the country started to divide in-between those that supported the House of Beaufort and those that supported the House of York.