Scotland: August 1453 to December 1454

The news of Henry VI’s sudden death arrived in Edinburgh not more than a week after it occurred; the news that two men were claiming the English throne came a few days after that.  James II, who at the age of 22 had already ruled Scotland for 16 years, could see the potential that the quickly developing succession crisis had for Scottish interests along the border with England.  However, James also had to contend with the fact that he himself was dealing with an intense family feud between the so called “black line” of Clan Douglas and the royal house of Stewart.  The feud had been escalating in intensity since the 1440s during the minority of James and evolved into an intermittent civil war in 1452 when James personally stabbed William Douglas, the 8^th Earl of Douglas, in Stirling Castle.  But as of last August 1453, only clans allied to the Black Douglas, as they were called, or loyal to the Stewarts had clashed with James Douglas, the 9^th Earl of Douglas, and his brothers not openly challenging James nor he openly challenging his enemies.

Throughout the fall of 1453, James and the Scottish nobles looked on as the English nobility divided between York and Beaufort or stayed neutral.  Then in early November reports came to Edinburgh that Fauconberg had left Roxburgh Castle with at least half the castle’s garrison headed for Berwick.  Instantly the King thought of taking one of the last English possessions on Scottish soil and started to gather troops from those loyal to him.  As it turned out so where the Black Douglas and for a while James though he might face open combat with his rivals until George Douglas, the 4^th Earl of Angus, of the “red-line” of Clan Douglas acted as an intermediary between his cousins the King and the Black Douglas along with their allies to temporarily set aside their issues for the good of the kingdom.

This temporary accord came just after news of the Battle of Durham drifted up from the English border along with reports that Fauconberg had taken half of the garrison of Berwick on his way to the battle.  On the heel of this news came the survivors from the Percy force including Henry Percy, the eldest son and heir of the 2^nd Earl of Northumberland, plus his brothers seeking a haven now that the North had all but fallen to the Nevilles in support of York.  The Percys were hereditary foes of the Douglases, however James allowed them to stay in Scotland but sequestered them away from the border for the time being.  In the meantime, James and the Douglases started to organize a force for the vulnerable English possessions giving the command to the Angus as he was at that time a neutral party in the bitter family feud.

In late January 1454, after following the flow of events in England, a small Scottish army led by Angus quickly took the lightly defended Berwick.  Angus left a garrison to defend the newly conquered city and lead the army to besiege Roxburgh Castle.  However, Fauconberg before he had left provisioned the strategic stronghold so well that the light garrison that he had left would be able to withstand a siege for a long time.  It did not take Angus long to realize that even before he had campaigned that Fauconberg had practicably gotten the best of him.  As news came of Richard’s victory at Bosworth, Angus knew that a now unified England would send a relief force soon and started to double his effects in taking Roxburgh.  However, the fragile coalition between forces loyal to James and those to the Black Douglas was breaking apart and with it the cohesion of the Scottish army.  When news arrived that Fauconberg was leading a relief force into northern England, Angus attempted to pressure the Roxburgh garrison even more, however Black Douglas’ allies refused and marched to meet the English.  Fauconberg crushed the splinter force before maneuvering between Roxburgh and Berwick making Angus choose between facing the oncoming English with a garrison behind him without support from Berwick or retreat leaving Berwick to a siege itself.  When Fauconberg arrived at Roxburgh in late April, Angus had long since left.

After reinforcing the Roxburgh garrison, Fauconberg went to besiege Berwick.  James along with many of the nobles and clans were angry of the betrayal of the Black Douglas’ allies at Roxburgh forcing Angus to retreat.  In fact during the siege of Berwick, the Stewart loyalists and the Black Douglas’ allies were at each other’s throats on the verge of fighting a civil war inside while enemy troops waited outside.  Then as Fauconberg got reinforcements, the Black Douglas’ allies let the English into the city but in doing so the Stewart loyalists forced their way through their countrymen to a ship that had arrived at the town and sailed away.  The ship arrived in Edinburgh a few days later and the Stewart loyalists talked about what happened at Berwick.  Although some of the Black Douglas’ allies tried to refute the accusations, the events around Roxburgh had already set the stage for more nobles and clans once allied to the Black Douglas started to turn to James.  It didn’t hurt the King that he was also using patronage, titles, and offices to pick off other Black Douglas allies as well.

As Richard settled into his reign in England, James had to considering the English exiles in his country.  Besides the Percy brothers and other nobles that had fled after Durham, James had allowed Oxford and Edmund Beaufort to stay in Scotland upon their arrival after fleeing from Bosworth.  The news of attainders, fines, and death warrants from England worried the exiles however James thought they could be of use against the Black Douglas.  He allowed the Percys to travel freely within the country though they and the other English exiles preferred to stay around Edinburgh with Edmund Beaufort acting as head of a court-in-exile.  The welcoming and harboring of the English exiles did nothing to improve relations with the new King of England; however James knew his rival Douglas would not find a friend in Richard due to the Douglases being hereditary foes with Nevilles just like they were with the Percys.

As 1454 ended in Scotland, James II found his nemesis, Douglas, losing support throughout the country from nobles and clans.  Even though the Scots lost the opportunity to gain permanent control of Roxburgh Castle and Berwick, the failures were blamed on Douglas’ allies while his decision to oppose the English and foment a potential Beaufort resurgence was highly thought of.  The only thing that concerned James was that Richard and France were cooperating on a potential marriage between Henry IV of Castile and Margaret of Anjou along with some disturbing reports from Ireland that he hoped would not force Richard’s hand.

Seeds are Sown

With the coronation finished, London returned back to normal even though Parliament was still in recess until the middle of May 1454.  With a significant amount of the members of Parliament departing back to their homes after the coronation to check on their estates before Parliament started again, the King and the majority of the Council remained in London to work on the affairs of state.  While working on state matters, Richard III was active in looking after the vast estates that he had brought to the Crown as well as those he now controlled via his ascension including the immensely rich Duchy of Lancaster.  As he continued to gain control of the bureaucracy, Richard III found himself dividing his time between state and estate matters that would continue throughout the rest of the summer and fall as he tried to develop a system of management that would work for him.  However, even as the King worked on current situations he was actively thinking about the future of the country in terms of his dynasty.  And with that in mind, Richard III started working on the composition of various regional councils and the creation, or elevating, of peers.

As Parliament came back into session, news came from Baron Fauconberg’s successfully relieving Roxburgh from the Scots and that he was actively besieging a Scottish garrison in Berwick.  The King ordered a few hundred troops from London up to Berwick to join Fauconberg’s forces to help in his campaign and requested in Parliament that the government’s debt to Fauconberg be given high priority as well as granting him an income to for the upkeep and defense of Roxburgh.  Parliament quickly approved the King’s request and the members working with Lord High Treasurer Viscount Bourchier took note.  Even as Fauconberg was putting the Scots in place, there were rumors from Ireland that the Earl of Ormond, though attainted and with a price on his head, was actively traveling around the island and meeting with chieftains that had not submitted to the Crown.  Richard III had already said that he had plans for Ireland, but he told Salisbury and Buckingham that he would be moving up his plans for Ireland if the rumor about Ormond was true.

As June 1454 arrived so did news from the Berwick in which Fauconberg had taken the town with the reinforcement the King had sent him and was holding several Scots as hostage for ransom.  Word arrived from Portugal in the form of two letters, one personally from King Afonso V and one from the English emissaries.  Afonso’s letter was formal in sending his condolences upon the death of Henry VI, congratulated Richard for his victory against Edmund Beaufort to show, and welcomed interest in the hand of his youngest sister.  However, the letter from his emissaries, Bishop Kempe and the Earl of Worchester, revealed that Afonso was very relieved when they inquired about a marriage because at the time there had been inquires by Henry IV of Castile who had divorced his first wife because he had not consummated his marriage.  Kempe and Worchester relayed that negotiations were preceding and went over some of the generous terms Afonso was willing to give at the beginning.  The King and Council quickly composed responses to the letters, the first was giving Kempe and Worchester instructions about upon limits as well as the King giving Worchester the authority to act as a surrogate groom for the Prince of Wales upon a successful completion of marriage negotiations and the second in response was a friendly and diplomatic reply to Alfonso’s letter.  By the end of the month the letters were on their way to Portugal.

With the marriage for his heir looking well on the way to a successful completion, Richard III made his second son, the 11-year old Edmund, the Duke of Bedford.  Also the King created his brother-in-law Henry Bourchier, Viscount Bourchier, as the Earl of Essex with the title of Viscount Bourchier being used as a courtesy title for Henry’s eldest son, William.  The King then arranged with Salisbury and Warwick the marriage of his youngest son, the nearly 2-year old Richard Plantagenet, to Warwick’s nearly 3-year old daughter Isabel Neville.  None of the three men expected more than the establishment of a cadet branch of the royal family and rewarding Neville support, none would have dreamed the impact this marriage would have on the future.  Queen Cicely had originally hoped that young Richard would have gone into the church, however with her husband’s ascension to the throne that was out of the question.  But Cicely was determined that her two youngest sons’ education and training would be the best possible for the benefit of the realm and in support of their eldest brother, Edward, when he succeeded his father.  Since the King had been overseeing his two eldest sons’ education for years and would continue to do so, especially that of the Prince of Wales.

As August approached, Richard III requested that the Earl of Richmond send his ward, 11-year old Lady Margaret Beaufort, to Queen Cicely at court.  Although it was unclear what the King’s plans for Lady Margaret were, the formal order styled her Countess of Somerset as was her right before Henry VI awarded her uncle Edmund the Earldom and later Dukedom of Somerset.  Some suspected that Richard was planning on marrying Margaret to the young Duke of Bedford while others thought that the King wanted the young woman secured until he had a grandson via the Prince of Wales.  However, Richard then named both the Earl of Richmond and his younger brother, the Earl of Pembroke, to the Council of Wales along with William Herbert to help administrate and provide justice in the Principality while the Prince of Wales was still a minor then to help advise him once he was old enough to take on more responsibility of governance.

With the first year of his reign ending, Richard finished the summer of 1454 in high spirits especially as Parliament was about to pass various Acts that would help bring law and order to the realm after the corruption brought about by Edmund Beaufort under the reign of Henry VI.  However, the King did not know that his actions had sown seeds that would harvest both good and evil for himself and his family.

The Bloodshed Begins

On 14 November 1453, the first battle in the first of a series of conflicts that would be known as the Wars of the Roses within eyesight of the city of Durham. The Nevilles and Percies renewed their feud, but now in support of two different claimants for the throne of England. The two forces numbered around 3000 each and fought to a stalemate throughout the day, neither side able to get the upper hand. Then in the afternoon, Fauconberg with a force of around 500 arrived from the north behind the Percy positions. The sudden appearance of an enemy force to their rear sent the Percy troops into disarray. While trying to maneuver his forces to counter the rear attack, the Earl of Northumberland was struck down and not long afterwards his forces broke, fleeing the field and dispersing throughout the north. The Bishop of Durham then opened the city gates and welcomed his brothers Salisbury and Fauconberg while Warwick took some men and rushed south to Middleham to continue recruiting a force to secure the north for Yorkist cause. The news surrounding the events outside Durham quickly spread throughout England, soon there was new of other battles circulating around the country.

In late November, Baron Cobham raised a force from Kent and headed for London in the name of York only to meet a force led by the Earl of Oxford from Barnet resulting in a battled just south of London resulting in a standstill. A small force of London citizenry tried to help Cobham, but as they exited the city Oxford tried to storm the city through the opened gate. Oxford was pushed back and then had to retreat when Cobham attacked from behind, though did prevent the Kentish force from linking up with the residents of London, who retreated back behind their gates. In the southwest, the Earl of Devon had raised a force from Cornwall and Devonshire then led them across the county of Somerset and entered county Wiltshire. On 3 December 1453, the Earl of Ormond having gathered a force from Wiltshire in support of Somerset defeated Devon’s forces at Bradfort-on-Avon. However, bad weather the next day prevented Ormond from following up the victory and Devon retreated into southern Gloucestershire.

As Christmas Day drew closer, the succession crisis had turned into a civil war but neither claimant had personally taken the field in their own cause. The House of York had the victory at Durham while the House of Beaufort had the victory at Bradford-on-Avon to counter it. Both forces of York and Beaufort were at a stalemate outside London with men starting to raid areas around London to gain provisions. The reason both Somerset and York had yet to take the field was because they were actively trying to gain the support of the church and its blessing, however while some clergy choose sides others took the stance of the Bishop of London and supported neither. Soon both men decided it was time to take the field and after having personally gathering armies were about to take to the fields of England to win undisputed control of the throne.

The Crisis Deepens

With two men proclaiming themselves his successor, Henry VI’s mortal remains arrived in London on 1 September 1453 with his half-brothers and his grieving wife leading the precession. His body lay in state at Fulham Palace that night then the next day proceeded to Westminster Abbey for his funeral and burial. Thomas Kempe, Bishop of London, presided and all in attendance waited during the eulogy to whom Bishop Kempe declared to be Henry VI’s successor. The bishop was the nephew of John Kempe, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and staunch supporter of the court party. The Archbishop Kempe, a politician first and hardly a bishop, had answered Somerset’s summon to Barnet and openly supported his claim to the throne. The Bishop of London, however was smart enough to know the city of which he presided over and wanted to keep his life, thus he pronounced neither Somerset or York as King during the eulogy. Henry VI was interred next to his favorite saint, Edward the Confessor, and London remained at peace for the moment.

Throughout September and into October, the two claimants demanded the other submit to them and by the end of the month had attained the other. Some nobles and magnates started to align themselves with either the House of York or House of Beaufort, by person or proclaiming it in nearest cathedral. The court party quickly supported Somerset, the two most prominent were the Earls of Oxford, John de Vere, and Ormond & Wiltshire, James Butler, and with them most of the bureaucracy of the Kingdom was at Somerset’s quick disposal. After Norfolk’s public support, York was soon joined by the Earl of Devon and Baron Cobham who had joined him in his 1452 campaign for reform as well as his brother-in-law, Viscount Bourchier, at Tewkesbury. Then news that Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury, and his son the Earl of Warwick, also named Richard, had proclaimed their support of York quickly sent their rivals in the North, the Percy clan headed by the Earl of Northumberland, over to support Somerset.

While others were putting their support behind either claimant, in hopes of power and influence, some nobles and magnates couldn’t make up their minds. An interesting case was Henry Holland, the Duke of Exeter, who was a descendant of John of Gaunt and possible claimant to the throne but also married to York’s oldest daughter. Exeter was strangely silent and noncommittal to the annoyance of his wife. Henry VI’s half-brothers, Edmund and Jasper Tudor, stayed in London with their sister-in-law Margaret, who had gone into sanctuary in Westminster Abbey feeling her life threatened in London. But the biggest seemingly neutral magnate was Humphrey Stafford, the Duke of Buckingham. A descendant of Edward III, Buckingham liked neither claimant and remained in his castle however he had learned that his son, the Earl of Stafford was going to go to Barnet to support Somerset. But after the Nevilles had joined York, Buckingham believed Somerset needed a miracle and stopped his son by holding him as a virtual prisoner until an undisputed King was acknowledged.

As the succession crisis continued into November all of England, both noble and common alike, could feel that a war was coming as neither claimant was backing down. It was only a matter of time when fighting would begin, even if it was winter. Then William Neville, Baron Fauconberg, sent word to his brother and nephew that the Earl of Northumberland had gathered a force and was marching south from Alnwick towards the city of York. The Earls of Salisbury and Warwick were both in Middleham gathering soldiers for the Yorkist cause when they received Fauconberg’s message and quickly marched north to meet the Percies. The two forces raced toward the city of Durham, though the Percies arrived first it was only an hour before the Nevilles did so as well, however it was just before night fell on 13 November and the two forces camped outside the city which had been barred by Robert Neville, the bishop of Durham, brother and uncle to the commanders of the Neville forces. For all in and around Durham that night, it was a night of unease.